Yanomamo Indians

Yanomamo Environment

Dense Amazon plantlife

The Yanomamo Indians are the indigenous people of the Amazon tropical rainforest of northern Brazil and southern Venezuela. Temperatures here are consistently between 22-30^oC with high humidity. Each year receives about 80 inches of rainfall, and there is almost no variation in weather throughout the seasons. The biggest temperature changes occur between day and night, and even those are slight.  

They are one of the most ancient people groups in existence in the Amazon rainforest and are very isolated from the outside world. It was only until 1920 that they had remained completely cut off from most other cultures. They live in villages of up to 300 residents; villages may often clash with one another. These clashes are primarily due to cultural conflicts, though, not for resources. The greatest competition they now face for resources is encroaching ranchers and gold miners that are illegally seizing land and polluting the river systems.  

The tropical rainforest environment is teeming with numerous species of plant and wildlife. Monkeys, jaguars, armadillos, snakes, various birds, and fish are hunted for food, and fruit bearing plants like bananas and plantains, edible roots, and local varieties of tobacco and cotton are also commonly found and utilized, even grown, by the Yanomamo. There is a noticeable scarcity of significant protein food sources. The only wildlife that poses a significant threat to the Yanomamo are the jaguar and disease bearing insects.

Adaptations

Physical

Unlike most Euro-American men, Yanomami
men do not have facial or significant body hair

Even though humid, hot air is uncomfortable to most Americans, it is actually ideal for maintaining homeostasis, as long as proper hydration is available.  One adaptation they poses is that they have little body or facial hair (even the men). This helps them cool off faster by sweating and also means they have less body oils on their skin which are not necessary in a moist environment. Because protein rich foods are difficult to find, the Yanonamo are extremely short. This is not just due to malnutrition; almost all Yanonamo people are unable to grow much over 5 feet tall. This allows them to live off less protein than many people normally require.
Cultural

Everyone is involved in gathering daily food and supplies

a shabono surrounded by dense forest

Yanonamo culture is a wonderful example of adaptation. They are horticulturists, so they only need to hunt and gather a little to supplement what they grow. The food they grow, though, is all from crops that are naturally found in their environment. Because of this, their crops require little maintenance, so they are also able to plant “wild” gardens far from the village that require little to no care. This allows them to travel from garden to garden gathering crops that have grown while they are at the home village. They also have very strong communal ties that make the most out of their resources. In the rainforest, wild plants are ready and waiting to pop back into any cleared land. Yanonamo villages consist of one large circular wooden compound with a garden in the center, called a shabono. This keeps the wild out, and allows people to keep their living and gardening spaces clear much more efficiently than if each family unit had to maintain their own. These communal ties are strong while they exist, but they are easily and frequently fractured. Deaths (violent or natural), marital dispute, shortage of women, or personal offenses can cause confrontations that end in villages fracturing. While this is bad in that it leads to many violent acts and deaths, it actually can help the Yanonamo survive in the long run by keeping their settlements from ever getting too large. In the jungle, it’s easier to provide resources for smaller groups of people.

Language

The Yanonamo speak Yanomame (also called Yanonamo) which is part of the Yanonaman language family that also contains Sanuma, Ninam, and Waika (also called Yanomami). This language family is totally distinct from any other language families in the world, which is a testament to how long they have been isolated from other people groups.

Their language contains 7 vowels, as opposed to English’s 8. In addition the familiar a, e, i, o, and u, they also have ë (combination of i and e sounds) and ö (combination of e and o). Words can have long sequences of vowel, sometimes up to four.  They are also highly synthetic, which means there is a high morpheme to word ratio. In comparison to English, it is much more synthetic. The Yanomamo have a very large vocabulary that is estimated to be even larger than the working vocabulary of many Americans, which is impressive considering they have no traditional written language.

Yanomami children in writing class

Thanks to recent humanitarian work, some Yanonamo have formed a written language. This is not widely used though, and oral tradition is still the primary means for passing along stories, legends, and knowledge.

Gender Roles

There are only two acknowledged genders in Yanonamo society: male and female. Since everything is either male or female to the Yanonamo, each gender works with objects of their corresponding gender. Fire is female, so women do the cooking. Cotton and fiber are male, so men spin and weave cotton fabrics and weave the baskets, but baskets are female so women gather with baskets. Women are usually less in number than men in a village, so their worth largely lies in their sexual and reproductive uses. They are the primary caregivers for children, and do much of the foraging for wood and food (though men will do the dangerous tree climbing for fruit). While tasks pertaining to the gathering of resources are strictly defined, work is fairly evenly divided between men and women.

men do most of the construction projects

Women spend a lot of time
gathering firewood and bring their
children with them when they go out

These gender roles are very rigid. Since tasks and goods themselves are clearly defined as male or female, there is little ambiguity as to what is expected of men and women. Effeminate behavior is strongly discouraged in men, and since women are in such high demand, their chances for obtaining a wife may diminish significantly. With no wife and no chance at children, chances for obtaining any status or power significantly diminish, especially if he lacks any desire to gain prowess through warfare and raids. Women are often beaten by their husbands for failing to perform their duties in a satisfactory manner. The only crossover that may occur is when a father chooses to be more involved in his children’s upbringing than is normally expected of a father.
            Children learn their gender roles from their parents, primarily their mothers, who are the primary caregivers. Daughters learn through example, beginning work with their mothers at a very young age. Sons, likewise, learn through their mother’s teachings and watching their fathers, although they are not expected to do any work until they are at a much older age than their working sisters.
            Biology has a great influence on gender roles in Yanonamo culture. Males typically tend to be physically stronger and bigger, and their testosterone makes them more aggressive than women, so they are the dominant gender. A woman’s most valuable asset is her sexual availability and ability to produce children, primarily male children. Female infanticide is high, with approximately 25% of all Yanonamo females being killed by their mothers. This is due to a number of factors. It is taboo to have sexual intercourse with a woman while she is still nursing a child, which can be for 3 years, so if a man feels he has enough children, he may make it very clear to his wife that he does not want another child, especially if its female. Males are also valued in wartime, and since the sexual taboos allow for only one child every 3-4 years, female infants may be killed in the hopes a strong male will be conceived quickly.

            Because of the frequent infanticide, I think that the narrator of the “Blessed Curse” would definitely have been killed or allowed to starve as an infant. Resources are tight in Yanonamo villages, so a child that may be found undesirable in anyway may very likely be killed. It seems that the narrator was outwardly more female, which also significantly decreases her chance for survival. Women’s sexuality is important, and if there is anything wrong with it, then the woman is not very valuable.

Subsistence

maintaining a garden plot

Horticulture provides the Yanomamo with the majority of their food. They use a slash-and-burn technique to help the fertility of the poor soil. Plantains and manioc are common crops, but mangoes, sugar cane, bananas, and yams may also be grown. These gardens are in the center of the village shabono, the communal structure that the entire village lives in. Additional garden plots may exist outside of the shabono, with some being as far as several days’ walk. Families will go on extended trips to these garden plots when ones nearby the village are picked clean. All plants crops are available year-round, but areas can become picked clean, so the distant garden plots are used as backup when nearby food sources are exhausted. Hunting and gathering also provide food; women gather wild growing edible fruits, insects, and fish, while the men hunt for monkeys, snakes, tapirs, birds, pretty much anything that could be a meat source. Natural poisons extracted from toxic vines and frogs are often used to stun or kill hunting game and fish. The entire village is involved in food and resource procurement. Children help their mothers and teenage boys accompany their fathers on hunting expeditions.  While their diet can be high in calories, it is often low in protein and salt. This leads to poor muscular development and low blood pressure. Meat is highly prized, so being a successful hunter can bring great prestige to a man. Hunters are expected to share their valuable kills with the village though. Villages may go to war over good hunting ground because it is rare.

Economics

Different villages can have different
basket patterns and exchange them
when alliances are formed, or they wish
to form them

The Yanonamo rarely have surplus food because of the amount of time that is required to gather it. They are also very aware not to deplete an area’s resources too quickly. Because of this, there is no specialization in Yanonamo villages.  Families are in charge of providing all their own goods and food, although sharing a little extra or exchanging one item for another is not uncommon. Since food is gathered in large groups, differences in wealth are not very great between individuals, and there is no currency. Village members are expected to take care of one another, meat from hunting trips is shared, and resources gathered outside family garden plots are found and harvested together equally.            
 The only trade that really exists is between separate villages. Amicable relationships can be strengthened by exchanging symbolic items like baskets or cotton fabric, or through food trades or gifts. These trading relationships can help villages show their good will toward one another and prevent war. Trade with outsiders, like explorers, has opened up a host of problems to the Yanonamo, though. Metal tools are highly coveted, and there is a lot of speculation that the violent behavior than the infamous anthropologist Changon noted was caused by their exposure and scramble to obtain his “civilized” tools and goods.  

Marriage

The Yanonamo practice polygynous marriages, but many are monogamous due to a frequent shortage of women. Girls can be promised to a man as young as toddlers, but they cannot actually marry until they have had their first menstrual cycle. At that point, their parents hand them off to their arranged husband almost immediately. Parents choose the spouse, and often marriages are between bilateral parallel cousins. This reinforces kinship ties, which are extremely important in Yanonamo society as they are what determine political power within a shabono. Sometimes women can be married off to men outside the village but this rarely happens since her family will have no way to ensure that she is treated well. Women captured in raids will be married to men in the village they are taken to as well.



Husband and wife

There is little fanfare surrounding a marriage. The only event to mark the marriage is when the couple sets up their hammocks next to each other to begin their life as a married couple. The husband will be expected to perform a year or so of bride service to his wife’s family; this expectation may be waved to high status suitors or men that are very close with the bride’s family. Bride-service is mostly done to repay her family for they labor they are losing through her marriage. Men are certainly more important in their marriage system. Women are a means of making alliances and producing children, all for the men.

There is a very strong incest taboo within the nuclear family; sex between brothers, sisters, or children with their parents is strongly forbidden. This means they practice lineage exogamy with village endogamy. All families in a village live together in the shabono. There is only one shabono per village, and 40-300 individuals can live in a village. Families have their own designated spots along the covered section of the shabono where they keep whatever limited personal items they own, along with their sleeping hammocks and fire pit. The shabono has no dividing walls, so there is very little privacy.

Because there are usually more single men than women in a village, men will often engage in homosexual acts with each other to satisfy their sexual urges. This behavior is viewed indifferently by the Yanonamo, however sexual acts between women are strictly prohibited. Men may have extramarital hetero and homosexual affairs, and as many wives as they can get, but women are may only have sex with their husband. However, husbands may allow their single friends or family members, even guests from outside villages, to have sex with their wives.

Kinship

Families follow a patrilineal descent pattern, but they remain acutely aware of any relatives they have, however distant they are. This follows their ideals that men are superior, and that any and all kin ties are important. If a man loses a family member to a raid from another tribe, he can rally together whatever kin he has to go on a revenge raid against them. The more kin they have, the more allies they have and the less likely someone is to due them harm for fear they will provoke the relatives to seek revenge. Matrilineal ties are still important, just less so than patrilineal.

The father holds the most power within the family, and is the one who is involved in arranging his children’s marriages. Domestic abuse is very common in Yanonamo marriages, and men will frequently beat their wives to maintain their dominance. Frequent small abuses are sometimes even seen as a sign that a husband cares about the integrity of his wife. If a husband crosses the line, though, his wife’s brothers may remover her from the marriage or punish the husband themselves. Mothers can still practice a significant level of control in their nuclear family though, since they are the ones responsible for raising the children. Most Yanonamo believe that a child inherits more of his mother than his father.

There are no inheritance practices in Yanonamo society. It is taboo to mention the dead, so their personal belongings are burned with them in the cremation ceremony. There is very little private property in their villages, aside from family garden plots, which would remain with the children of the deceased.

Yanonamo kinship titles follow the same pattern as the Iroquois. The above diagram lays out what each family member is referred to in their language.

Social Structure



Yanomami life is very group oriented, as demonstrated
by the openness and communal feel of the shabono

It is estimated that there are about 20,000-30,000 Yanonami people living in approximately 360 known villages. Each village can consist of 40-300 people, but they can shift and fracture frequently. Social structure is simple, with children at the bottom, then their mothers, men, and the men who have killed, with headman at the top. Villages are technically egalitarian, but every village has a headman.  Oftentimes, the headman is the head of the largest family unit in the village. Important decisions are usually decided upon as a group; however, the headman can give very valued input. Individuals can earn certain influential status through their success in reproduction, revenge raids, hunting, and kinship connections. Having a reputation of fierceness, waiteri as they call it, can earn a man a lot of respect in his village. People will be less likely to disagree with him, make any advances on his wife, and he will probably be able to get more people to accompany him on revenge raids. Women can only change their position in life through their children or sons if they become influential. Men can climb the social ladder by earing waiteri, through being successful hunters and fighters.Men who also repeatedly show skill in solving problems, settling arguments, and procuring food are also able to increase their social influence. 

Yanonamo Politics

It is difficult to differentiate between their political and social structures because the two are so intertwined. Social status determines political influence in Yanonamo villages. Men are the only people with any “political” power in the village, and that is usually determined by the level of respect that they have earned through the size of their family and their waiteri. Power is not passed from one person to another except when a new headman is selected. Usually, when the headman dies, the village will choose a new one. This can lead to heated arguments and the village may splinter into new ones.

aftermath of a club fight, which are used to settle
disputes and establish "waiteri"

Yanonamo villages lack any real laws or rules. Social misbehavior, such as acts of incest or female homosexuality, will result in the offender being shunned by the village, and anything that may be taken as a personal offense usually is settled through duels and fighting. Seeking revenge is very important for building up waiteri, so if one man steals something from another, or pursues one of his female relatives indecently, or violates a marriage contract (not providing a promised daughter), or steals, the headman will often be able to settle the dispute. However, if it is serious enough, the two men may fight. These duels often end in a tie so that both men can save face; the point of the duel is for the offended man to protect his wateri and honor to prevent anyone else from messing with him in the future.

Valuable Violence

"Unokais": those who have killed

There are three types of fighting to the Yanomamo: Ha’ati kayu, xeyu, and waihu. Only waihu is all out war; ha’tai kayu and xeyu are not meant to be deadly and are a means of blowing off steam for men in the village that have tension between them, and the headman supervises the entire fight. If a man is angry at a man in his village, say for being indecent to his wife, he and his relatives will challenge the other man’s relatives to ha’tai kayu, a fight in which they are only allowed to hit each other in the chest with rocks. Once the men have all beaten each other up sufficiently, the headman calls it off and has everyone separate, and the dispute is resolved. If one village angers another by disrespecting them, they will be challenged to xeyu. During this, the men paint themselves in fierce black body paint and use long heavy rods to fight. Men from the two villages line up in a clearing facing each other, and then proceed to whack each other with the poles. When most of the men are fairly well bloodied, the headmen call it off and both villages leave. Waihu is what we would understand as war, often centered around revenge, and the intent for the fighting is to kill. This fighting involves arrows or spears.

When ha’tai kayu or xeyu go wrong and someone is killed, even if it’s accidental, the family of the deceased may choose to retaliate and seek revenge. The person responsible for the death is rarely the target, as anyone from his village will suffice. The raiding party will ambush the first person they see with arrows and then quickly retreat. This is seen as sufficient justice to the raiding party. If a tribe, or an individual, does not seek out blood revenge when they are wronged, they will suffer. People in their village will lose respect for them, and entire villages may become victims to harassment from “fiercer” tribes who do not fear retaliation. To the Yanomamo, violence is necessary for maintaining a good reputation, and a good reputation can bring peace and security against attacks from others.

Many Yanomamo would be confused by American’s strong negative reactions to all forms of violence. To them, hitting and beating another person, whether it’s their wife or a man they are angry with, is nothing more than a way of expressing anger and frustration. As long as it does not end in death, it is not taken personally. Violence is viewed very differently in Yanomamo society than in ours. To them it is a normal, acceptable means for expressing oneself and it influences many aspects of their social and political structure.

Yanomamo Religion

The Yanomamo practice a religion that is unique to their culture. They are primarily animists, believing that everything in the world is controlled and influenced by spirits. Forces of nature, plants, animals, and even nonliving objects such as clay all have their own spirits. In an interview conducted by the American Anthropological Association, a Yanomamo leader said “…the Yanomami respects… he is for the environment. We are the environment, of the environment. We are friends of the environment, the animals, mountains…” They do have a creator-deity called Omam that made the universe and sustains the universe. To go against Omam’s creation, like deforesting an area, is to invite destruction to the Yanomami.

Shaman in a hallucogen induced trance

sharing the yopo pipe

Their creation story is very unique. Omam created the universe, with a top layer that was inhabited by the original humans: no badabo. They are party spirit, human, and animal. They began to turn bad though, and part of their top layer of the universe, called duku ka misi, crashed through hedu, the next level. Hedu is very similar to earth, but better, so when the no babado fell through hedu, they knocked down some of it to make the third layer of the universe: hei ka mis. Here Omam made the Yanomamo. The no babado fell through the layer once more and created the fourth, bottom level of the universe, called hei ta bebi. There they became the Amahe-teri, forced to cannibalism because their jungle and hunting grounds did not fall from earth with them. Hedu, hei ka mis, and hei ta bebi are the most important since hei ka mis is the earth we know, hedu is the better world that the spirits of the dead go to, and hei ta bebi is home to the Amahe-teri who try to steal the souls of children to satisfy their cannibalistic cravings. There is a more in depth story involving the creation of man and women, but it varies from village to village. Basically, men came from the blood of the moon that was spilt on earth when a no badabo shot the moon with and arrow, and the first woman was discovered by man growing out of a wabu fruit.
 The village shaman is very important to the Yanomamo religion. The shaman continually does battle with the Amahe-teri to protect the villagers from them, he controls weather, keeps the world from “collapsing”, basically keeps life as we know it on course. They perform witchcraft on enemies, heal the sick, and influence nature to yield favorable conditions. Another important practice is the taking of yopo, a hallucagenic powder made from plants. Men will blow it from their mouth and nasal cavities into those of another man through a pipe. The yopo is used to see and connect with the xapiripe, the spirits that inhabit every creature, person and object in the world. This practice is very important for them because it is a way for them to connect with their environment and also with each other, as demonstrated with the yopo pipe blowing. Ironically, the Yanomamo practice a form of endo-cannibalism, even though the general idea of cannibalism is completely repulsive to them. When a loved one dies, they are cremated and then the women of the family grind up the bones and sprinkle a little into banana mash soup and consume it. This is a way for the family to keep their family members with them even after death. It is also one of the only religious practices that the women are allowed to participate in. 

This religion is vital to the Yanomamo. As mentioned above, they believe that the work of their shaman maintains order and life on our planet, not just for the Yanomamo, but for all humanity. Most of them are very sure that if their religious practices were abandoned, the earth would become a wasteland, the Amahe-teri would run amuck, and chaos would ensue. Even though their religion is very important to them, I believe that their cultural could exist independent of it. Their family practices, subsistence, social conduct, medicine, politics, and art could exist without practicing their religious beliefs.

men wear feathers while girls wear flowers

Art 

Women decorated for a celebration

Since almost all possessions and even living structures that the Yanomamo make are temporary, there artwork often is too. The most common form of art is body art. Piercings containing long grasses or palm shoots around the lips and ears are common decoration for women, and both genders will cover themselves in wavy patterns with purple and red paint for celebrations and ceremonies. Men will wear decorative headdresses and arm bands made from bird feathers, and women will place flowers behind their ears and on their arms. Basket and hammock weaving are also common, although most Yanomamo see this as more of a practical than artistic activity. 

         The Yanomamo have no musical instruments but they do sing. Singing is most often practiced by shaman in religious or healing ceremonies, but men and women will sing for enjoyment, or during celebrations or funerals. It often does not involve any words, just expressive tones and sounds.

Shaman in a trance
dancing and singing

        Yanomamo feasts, funerals and celebrations are common platforms for singing and dance performances. Friendly villages are invited when there is plentiful food for feasts, and everyone uses the opportunity to dress up with elaborate body paint, flowers, feathers, and piercings. Stories are told with dramatic flair, and often the teller will ham it up jumping around and pantomiming along with their story. Men will dance with their weapons in a show of force. Feasts are a chance to put on a show for their neighbors, and are a great display of their art.
         Music is very special in their religion. When the shaman sings during his ceremonies, his song is a display of his out of body experience and struggle against evil spirit in his cosmic journeys that he is believed to go on in order to pull evil spirits out of the sick, or when calling upon his personal demons to do his bidding. Singing is the primary art form involved in their religious activities.

Cultural Change

Over the past few decades since their first contact with the outside world, the Yanomamo Indians have experienced many negative, and some positive, effects. Because they have been so isolated, they are extremely vulnerable to disease, and thousands of Yanomami have died from influenza, malaria, and other common illnesses brought on by contact with outsiders. Illegal mining operations and deforesting have also greatly hurt their way of life. There is less game to hunt, and mining ponds have become a breeding ground for disease bearing insects. Metal appliances have helped in their constant struggle to procure food, but they also have been the reason for villages battling one another. Early anthropological studies, such as those of Napoleon Chagnon, harmed them as well. Many Yanomami claim that they remember Chagnon instigating violent behavior by offering metal pots to the men who went on raids and behaved the fiercest.  

“City” culture has had a slight positive effect on the Yanomamo as well in that it has led to more pacifism. Villages are more likely to get food, medicine, and teaching in literacy if they are not fighting with each other as often.
          Because the Yanomamo have only had contact with outsiders for a few mere decades (some villages are still completely isolated, and have never been contacted) it is difficult to tell what the future holds for their culture. They hold very strongly to their beliefs and lifestyles, and while they do enjoy more modern tools and medicine, they believe that their way is best. However, if diseases, mining, and deforesting continue at the pace they are at now, enough Yanomami could be wiped out that their culture could die out along with them.
          Yanomami culture has recently come to attention due to the “green” movement. A big part on Yanomami life revolves around harmony with nature and respecting it. The movie Avatar actually borrowed a lot from their culture, from the egalitarian society, group living, animism, to needing only what the earth has to offer and taking only what you need. While that movie had a big impact on American culture, the Yanomamo society itself probably will not impact the rest of the world too greatly because they still remain so isolated. This would prevent them from having contact with enough people to really effect cultural change outside their villages. 
            I've included part of a filmed interview with a Yanomami shaman names Davi Kopenawa. Davi has traveled the globe raising awareness for the fragile state of his people's existence, and also for the care of the environment.

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